Tables
Table 1 for the Timescale of Evidence |
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Site |
Date of Site |
Species of Hominin |
MNI |
Age Range of Individuals |
Evidence of Cannibalism? |
Type of Cannibalism: |
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Nut. |
Rit. |
Sur. |
Psy. |
Agg. |
Med. |
Gran Dolina (Aurora Stratum) |
780, 000 BP |
H. antecessor |
6 |
2 infants, 2 adolescents, 2 adults |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Middle Awash Valley – Bodo |
500, 000 – 200, 000 BP |
H. heidelbergensis |
1 |
indeterminate |
Inconclusive, w/ cutmarks |
? |
? |
? |
? |
? |
? |
Middle Awash Valley - Herto |
160, 000 - 154, 000 BP |
H. sapiens idaltu |
3 |
1 infant, 2 adults |
Inconclusive, w/ cutmarks |
? |
? |
? |
? |
? |
? |
Moula-Guercy |
100, 000 BP |
H. neanderthalensis |
6 |
2 infants, 2 adolescents, 2 adults |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Gough's Cave |
11,500 - 13, 000 BP |
H. sapiens |
5 |
1 infant, 2 adolescents, 2 adults |
Yes |
Yes |
Poss. |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Fontebregoua |
6, 000 - 7, 000 BP |
H. sapiens |
6 |
2 infants, 3 adults, 1 indeterminate |
Yes |
Yes |
Poss. |
No |
No |
No |
No |
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Key: |
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Nut. = Nutritional |
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Rit. = Ritual |
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Sur. = Survival |
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Psy. = Psychological |
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Agg. = Aggressive |
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Med. = Medicinal |
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MNI = Minimum Number of Individuals |
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Table 1: Data from |
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Villa et al 1986; White 1986; Defleur et al 1999; Fernandez-Jalvo et al 1999; Stringer 2000; Andrews and Fernandez-Jalvo 2003; Lemonick and Dorfman 2003. |
Table 2: The aim of the action deduced from the type of mark, cutmark organisation and bone area affected from the site Atapuerca TD 6 Aurora Stratum
Butchering |
Large Fauna |
Medium Fauna |
Small Fauna |
Homo |
Cranial |
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Cranial Fragments |
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4 (1F, 4S) |
4 (2F, 2D, 1S) |
Mandible |
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1 (F) |
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1 (F) |
Maxillae |
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2 (2F) |
Postcranial |
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Axial - Ribs |
2 (1F, 1E) |
9 (8F, 1D) |
13 (11F, 2E) |
4 (4F, 2E) |
Axial - Vertebra |
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1 (D) |
3 (2F, 1D) |
2 (1F, 1D) |
Axial - Clavicle |
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3 (2F, 1D) |
Limbs - Humerus |
2 (1F, 1P) |
2 (2F) |
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Limbs - Radius |
1 (F) |
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1 (F, D) |
Limbs - Ulna |
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1 (F) |
1 (F) |
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Limbs - Scapula |
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1 (F) |
1 (F) |
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Limbs - Coxal |
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1 (F) |
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Limbs - Femur |
3 (3F) |
2 (1F, 1P) |
1 (F) |
1 (F, M) |
Limbs - Tibia |
3 (2F, 1M) |
2 (1F, 1D) |
2 (2F, 1P) |
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Limbs - Long Bones |
3 (2F, 1P) |
11 (9F, 2P) |
1 (F) |
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Limbs - Flat Bones |
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3 (3F) |
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Extremities - Phalanges |
2 (2D) |
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3 (3D) |
Extremities - Sesamoid |
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1 (D) |
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Extremities - Phalanx |
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1 (F) |
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Extremities - Metapoidals |
6 (4F, 1P, 1M) |
2 (2F) |
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2 (2D, 1P) |
Key: |
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S = skinning; |
F = filleting; |
D = dismembering; |
M = marrow extraction; |
E = evisceration; |
P = periosteum removal |
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Table 2: The first number corresponds to the total number of specimens, whilst the numbers in brackets correspond to the number of specimens with the hominin modifications. Data and Table after Fernandez-Jalvo et al 1999: 615.
Table 3: Showing the Modification of Deer and Neanderthal bones at Moula Guercy
Butchering |
Hominin |
Fauna (Deer) |
Cranial |
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Cranial Fragments |
23 (15Cu, 23Fr) |
1(1Fr) |
Mandible |
2 (2Cu, 2Fr) |
5 (1Cu, 5Fr) |
Postcranial |
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Ribs |
2 (2Cu) |
8 (1Cu) |
Vertebra |
2 (0) |
12 (1Cu) |
Pelvis |
3 (0) |
0 (0) |
Humerus |
0 (0) |
9 (4) |
Radius |
2 (1Cu) |
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Ulna |
2 (1Cu) |
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Scapula |
0 (0) |
2 (0) |
Radioulna |
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7 (2Cu) |
Carpal |
1 (0) |
3 (0) |
Tarsal |
7 (1Cu) |
5 (1Cu) |
Metapoidal |
3 (1Cu) |
43 (9Cu, 43Fr) |
Phalanx |
9 (4Cu, 2Fr) |
20 (1Cu, 13Fr) |
Femur |
5 (3Cu) |
15 (7Cu) |
Tibia/Fibula |
4 (1Cu) |
9 (2Cu) |
Limb Bones |
13 (6Cu, 13Fr) |
40 (15Cu, 40Fr) |
Clavicle |
3 (3Cu) |
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Inner conchoidal scars |
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7.4% |
10.7% |
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Percussion pits |
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2.9% |
2.0% |
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Adhering flakes |
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1.5% |
1.0% |
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Anvil striae |
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1.5% |
0.5% |
Key: |
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Cu = Cutmarks |
Fr = Fracture for marrow or brains |
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Table 3: Except where denoted as percentage values, the first number corresponds to the total number of specimens, whilst the numbers in brackets correspond to the number of specimens with the hominin modifications. Data and table after Defleur et al 1999: 130.
Table 4: To Show Bone Surface Modifications on Human and Faunal Remains at Gough’s Cave
Butchering |
Large Fauna (Equid and Cervid) |
Hominin |
Cranial |
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Hemi-mandibles |
21 (5Cu, 13P, 1A, 4Pe) |
6 (4Cu, 1Pe) |
Hemi-maxillae |
7 (4Cu, 4P, 1A, 1Pe) |
2 (2Cu, 2P) |
Skull |
2 |
3 (2Cu, 2P, 2R, 2Pe) |
Postcranial |
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Ribs |
5 (5Cu, 3P) |
40 (20Cu, 8P, 8Pe) |
Vertebra |
12 (8Cu, 1P, 5T) |
7 (3Cu, 1P, 2Pe) |
Clavicle |
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3 (3Cu) |
Humerus |
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6 (4Cu, 3P, 1Co, 1A, 1R) |
Radius |
1 (CU, P, R) |
5 (1Cu, 3P, 1Pe) |
Ulna |
1 (Cu, P, R) |
4 (2Cu, 1P, 1A, 2Pe) |
Scapula |
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4 (4Cu, P1, Pe) |
Tarsal |
7 (2Cu) |
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Metapoidal |
30 (18Cu, 21P, 4Co, 2F) |
5 (1P, 1Pe) |
Phalange |
53 (31Cu, 29P) |
1 |
Femur |
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1 (P) |
Tibia |
7 (5Cu, 1P, 1Co, 1R) |
1 (P, Pe) |
Fibula |
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1 (Cu, A) |
Pelvis |
2 (2Cu) |
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Calcaneus |
8 (5Cu, 1P) |
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Astragalus |
15 (7Cu) |
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Key: |
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Cu = Cutmarks |
P = Percussion marks |
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A = Adhered flake |
R = Removed flake |
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F = Flakes removed |
T = Tooth marks |
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Co = Conchoidal scars |
Pe = Peeling |
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Table 4: The first number corresponds to the total number of specimens, whilst the numbers in brackets correspond to the number of specimens with the hominin modifications. Data from Andrews and Fernandez-Jalvo 2003, constructed by the author 2005
Table 5: Gough’s Cave Radiocarbon determinations for Upper Palaeolithic Human Bones and Humanly Modified Bone, Antler and Ivory
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Hominin Modified Human Remains |
Hominin Modified Animal Remains |
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Find Number |
Specimen |
Date = 14Cyr BP |
Specimen |
Date = 14Cyr BP |
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(OxA-2234* |
Human adult calotte |
11,480±90 1) |
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(OxA-2236 |
Human adult mandible |
11,700±100 1) |
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OxA-2795* |
Human adult frontal |
11,820±120 1 |
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Oxa-2797 |
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Reindeer antler baton perce |
11,870±110 |
1 |
(OxA-2235 |
Human child calvaria |
11,990±90 1) |
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OxA-1890 |
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Mammoth ivory sagaie |
12,170±130 |
2 |
OxA-2237 |
Human scapula |
12,300±100 1 |
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OxA-1071 |
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Cut red deer phalange |
12,300±180 |
3 |
OxA-589** |
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Cut wild horse atlas |
12,340±150 |
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BM-2183R** |
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Cut wild horse atlas |
12,350±160 |
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OxA-590** |
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Cut wild horse atlas |
12,370±150 |
4 |
OxA-465 |
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Cut wild horse phalange |
12,360±170 |
6 |
OxA-2796 |
Human adult calotte |
12,380±110 1 |
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OxA-3452 |
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Cut wild horse phalange |
12,400±110 |
7 |
OxA-464 |
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Cut wild horse metacarpal |
12,470±160 |
6 |
OxA-3412 |
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Cut red deer tibia |
12,490±120 |
7 |
OxA-4107 |
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Arctic hare tibia awl |
12,550±130 |
7 |
OxA-3414 |
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Cut rib |
12,570±120 |
7 |
OxA-3411 |
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Cut lynx femur |
12,650±120 |
7 |
OxA-4106 |
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Cut wild horse vertebra |
12,670±120 |
7 |
OxA-466 |
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Cut red deer metatarsal |
12,800±170 |
6 |
OxA-3413 |
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Cut wild horse vertebra |
12,940±140 |
7 |
Table 5: Data and Key from Hedges et al 1991; Hedges et al 1990; Hedges et al 1987; Gowlett et al 1986; |
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Bowman et al 1990; Gillespie et al 1985; Hedges et al 1994. |
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Key: *and ** indicate repeat dates on the same specimen. |
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Determinations in parentheses are on specimens formerly at the Cheddar Man Museum and possibly treated with organic preservative |
Table 6: To Show Bone Surface Modifications on Human and Faunal Remains
Butchering |
Faunal |
Human |
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Cranial |
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Mandible |
14 (11Cu, 8Sk, 8D) |
9 (8Cu, 6Sk, 5D) |
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Cranial Fragments |
13 (11Cu, 10Sk, 4D) |
8 (8Cu, 6Sk, 2D) |
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Postcranial |
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Limbs - Humerus |
20 (8Cu, 8F, 2D) |
12 (5Cu, 12,F) |
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Limbs - Femur |
29 (12Cu, 8F, 7D) |
13 (5Cu, 3F, 5D) |
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Limbs - Tibia and Fibula |
13 (5Cu, 5F, 1D) |
25 (8Cu, 7F, 1D) |
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Limbs - Scapula |
9 (4Cu, 2F, 2D) |
16 (8Cu, 3F, 8D) |
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Axial - Ribs |
88 (52Cu, 29F, 32D) |
38 (10Cu, 8F, 5D) |
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Key: |
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Cu = Cutmarks |
Sk = Skinning |
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F = Filleting |
D = Dismembering |
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Some bones may |
have more than one type |
of modification |
Table 6: The first number corresponds to the total number of specimens, whilst the numbers in brackets correspond to the hominin modifications. Data from Villa et al 1986, and constructed by the author 2005.
* The whole number before the brackets indicates the number of whole specimens. For the Crania, the MNE was used to avoid problems related to fragmentation (Villa et al 1986). *Data converted from a percentage table in Villa et al 1986, so where necessary figures were rounded up or down to the nearest whole number. Data converted to ensure that the data presentation for this paper remained consistent.
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