SECTION 4.1 THE HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS by Annsofie Witkin

INTRODUCTION

METHODOLOGY
Inventory
Determination of sex
Assessment of age
Stature
Pathology

THE ROMAN INHUMATION BURIALS
Quantification and context
Condition and completeness
Age and sex
Stature
Dental pathology
Skeletal pathology

THE MID-LATE SAXON INHUMANTION BURIALS
Quantification and context
Condition and completeness
Age and sex
Stature
Non metric traits
Dental pathology
Skeletal pathology

DISCUSSION
The Roman burials
The middle-late Saxon burials

THE DISARTICULATED HUMAN REMAINS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Introduction

The human skeletal remains were originally analysed in the early 1980s by Mary Harman. However, due to significant advances in osteological methodology, pathological identification and recording methodologies, the articulated late Roman and Saxon inhumation burials were re-analysed. The discussion originally written by Mary Harman has been extensively modified with the exception of the disarticulated remains.

In total, 10 inhumations dating to the late Roman period were analysed. These were all adults, apart from one unknown. The mid to late Anglo-Saxon skeletons comprised six skeletons, four adults and two children and are dated between the end of the 7th century and the end of the end of the 10th century.

The disarticulated bone represents between three and four adults and four infants. The disarticulated remains were derived from features dated from the early 1st century to the late 4th century.

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Methodology

Inventory

The skeletal inventory was recorded pictorially. In addition, the skeletal components of the individual were recorded in tabular form as present or absent.

Dental inventory was recorded following the Zsigmondy system. Dental notations were recorded by using the universally accepted recording standards and terminology (after Brothwell 1981).

Determination of sex

The inhumation burials at Claydon Pike were sexed by using a combination of cranial, pelvic and metrical data. The features used were chosen from Standards (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) and Workshop (1980). Each observable feature on the cranium and pelvis was scored on a five-point scale (probable female, female, probable male, male and unknown). The overall score from the observed features provided the basis for the assigned sex.

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Assessment of age

A combination of the following methods were used for the assessment of age within the two population groups: Epiphyseal fusion (Chamberlain 1994), formation of permanent dentition (Moorees et al. 1963), degenerative changes of the pubic symphyses (Suchey and Brooks 1990), degenerative changes observed on the auricular surface (Lovejoy et al. 1985), dental attrition (Miles 1962) and suture closure (Meindl and Lovejoy 1985).

Stature

Stature was estimated by using the regression formulae developed by Trotter (1970) were then used for the calculation of height. The bones preferred for the calculation was the left femur and tibia. If these were not available, right side was used. These bones were chosen because the stature estimate obtained carries the least error. When these bones were not available, any complete long bone was used. This does however introduce a larger margin of error.

Pathology

The remains were examined for abnormalities of shape and surface texture. When observed, pathological conditions were fully described and recorded following the standards listed in osteological textbooks. Due to the small size of the assemblages, prevalence rates were not calculated.

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The Roman inhumation burials (Fig. 4.1.1: Human remains from the cemetery)

Quantification and context

The assemblage comprises 10 individuals. These consisted of nine adults and one individual who could not be aged nor sexed. Eight burials (skeletons 2767, 2768, 2769, 2770, 2771, 2772 and 2776), were located within or surrounding two small enclosures adjacent to the northern double boundary ditch of a large enclosure. The other two, skeletons 2744 and 2746, were situated about 30 m north-west of the main cemetery, on the other side of the double ditches.

Condition and completeness

All skeletons were in poor condition. The bones were generally extremely fragmented and the outer surfaces were badly eroded, cracked and chalky.

The completeness ranged from fair, with the survival of most major skeletal elements, to almost entirely destroyed. Hands, feet, ribs and vertebrae were generally absent. The pelvic elements were also largely missing. All crania were considerably fragmented and comprised largely vaults. Skeletons 2746 and 2777 were missing skulls. All that survived of skeleton 2746 was small fragments of leg bones. The vast majority of the teeth present were loose.

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Age and sex

The individuals consisted of adults only. The distribution of age and sex is summarised in Table 1.

Due to the condition of the bones, 4 of the 10 individuals could not be sexed. However, the general morphology of the long bones from skeleton 2770 and 2777 suggests that these may have been male and female respectively. All of the individuals were adults with the youngest being no older than 18 years and the oldest over 40 years of age.

Stature

No complete long bones were present for the calculation of stature.

Dental pathology

All but two skeletons (2746 and 2769) had at least some of the dentition present. Since most of the teeth were loose, it was not possible to calculate rates of ante-mortem and post-mortem loss. Nor was it possible to ascertain which individuals had suffered from periodontal disease. The dental diseases present amongst the group were dental calculus, enamel hypoplasia and carious lesions.

Dental calculus is formed by mineralised plaque which accumulates on the base of living plaque deposits (Hillson 1996, 225). Calculus is a common pathological condition and is generally related to poor oral hygiene. The deposits are generally seen on the teeth nearest the saliva glands which would correspond with the location of the deposits seen on the teeth of this individual. Five of the individuals had deposits of supra-gingival calculus on their teeth present ranging from small to medium (Brothwell 1981).

Dental caries is a destruction of the enamel caused by the production of acid from bacteria present in dental plaque (Hillson 1996, 269). The cavities are commonly found in areas where food is likely to get trapped such as on the biting surfaces of the premolars and molars, between the teeth and along the cemento-enamel junction (CEJ). When the cavities are present at the CEJ, it is often predisposed by periodontal disease (Hillson 1996, 275). Cavities were present in 10.42% (10/96) of the permanent teeth. The carious lesions were confined to six individuals.

Hypoplastic lines on the enamel surface are formed during periods of growth arrest during the development of the tooth crown. These bouts of growth arrest have been linked to periods of childhood diseases, weaning and malnutrition (Hillson 1996, 166-167). Only two of the individuals (2744 and 2772) had faint lines present on the crowns of the permanent dentition. A total of five teeth were affected.

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Skeletal pathology

Few pathological lesions were present on these individuals. This may indicate that this group of people were relatively healthy and suffered from few complaints, either at the time of death or earlier on in their lives. However, the poor preservation and completeness of the remains is the most likely reason for the low rate of pathological lesions.

Metabolic disorder

Slight porosity was present on cranial fragments from skeletons 2767 and 2776. This type of lesion is known as porotic hyperostosis and is caused by anaemia. Iron deficiency may be caused by having a deficient diet, major blood loss through trauma, or chronic disease such as cancer and parasitic infection of the gut. The porosity results from the skeletal response to increase the production of red blood cells in the marrow. The lesions were healed and these individuals were not anaemic at the time of death.

The bones of skeleton 2777 were also extremely light, with a thin outer cortex and a diminished trabecular inner structure where it was visible. The sizes of the bones suggested this was possibly a female and she was also aged over 40 years. This strongly suggest that this individual suffered from osteoporosis. However, it is impossible to be certain since the bone loss may be entirely due to the effects of the soil in the burial environment.

Infectious disease

The medial aspects of the tibiae of skeleton 2770 exhibited striated lamellar bone, which indicated that the infection was healed. This type of infection involves only the surface of the bones and is known as periostitis. The precise aetiology is not known but it is believed that due to the close proximity to the skin surface, the infection may have been caused by minor shin trauma.

Degenerative joint disease

Throughout life, joints are subjected to wear and tear. This gradual deterioration of the joint surfaces is therefore common in older individuals. Today, up to 85% of individuals are affected by joint diseases such as osteo-arthritis (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 100). The changes that take place are new bone formation around the margins of the joint or on the surface itself and porosity. When the cartilage within the joint has worn away, the bone to bone contact causes the bone to be polished, or eburnated. Eburnation is an important criteria for the diagnosis of osteo-arthritis in skeletal remains. The aetiology is multi-factoral but increasing age, genetic predisposition, lifestyle and environmental factors such as climate all play a part in the development of osteoarthritis.

Only two individuals exhibited degenerative changes. The low number of individuals with this condition is probably due to the fragmented nature of the bones in which joint surfaces were almost always absent. Slight degenerative changes were present on the mandibular condyles and the dens on the second cervical vertebral element on skeleton 2776. The left humeral head of skeleton 2777 also had deposits of new bone on the surface of the joint as well as osteo-arthritis on the articular processes of the lower lumbar vertebral elements.

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The mid-late Saxon inhumation burials (Fig. 4.1.2: Sub-Roman burials )

Quantification and provenance

This small group of individuals comprised six skeletons, four adults and two children. All but one, skeleton 702, overlaid building 8. This skeleton was located about 5 m east of the building. Skeletons 1971, 2105, 2129 and 2277 were together in a small cluster near the north-eastern corner of the building. Skeletons 1971 and 2129 were cut through the external eastern wall of the building and skeletons 2105 and 2277 were situated just inside the wall. Skeleton 800 was situated some 17 m south-west of the small cluster. This grave was situated on the western side, within building 8.

Condition and completeness

In striking contrast to the late Roman inhumations, these were all in a good state of preservation with slight post-mortem changes to the cortical surfaces of the bones. Post-mortem breaks were generally minimal apart from skeleton 2277 which was very fragmented.

Completeness varied from fair to excellent. The children were generally less complete than the adults. Only part of the face and a few hand and foot bones were missing from skeletons 1971 and 2129.

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Age and sex

The group consisted of four adults and two children. The age and sex distribution is summarised in Table 2. The age and sex distribution of these individuals is consistent with a small family burial ground used over a couple of generations.

Stature

Stature was calculated for three of the four individuals (see Table 3). The average stature for an Anglo-Saxon male was 172 cm and a medieval male was 171 cm (Roberts and Cox 2003, 396). This indicates that the males from Claydon Pike were quite tall. Indeed, the average modern British man is 175 cm so skeleton 1971 is taller than average compared to modern standards. The female is also quite tall, just below the modern average of 167 cm.

Non metric traits

Non-metric traits are minor skeletal variations which are recorded as present or absent. Though the aetiology of the traits is varied, some do have a genetic background. The traits are commonly used for infra- and intra-population studies and the most used application has been for suggesting family clusters (Brothwell and Zakrzewski 2004, 28).

Amongst the adult individuals, three skeletons (1971, 2105 and 2129) exhibited common traits (see Table 4). The distribution of the traits strongly suggests that these individuals were related, thus supporting the notion that these burials were part of a small family cemetery.

 

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Dental pathology

All of the individuals had dentition present and none of the teeth were loose. Due to the small number of individuals in the group prevalence rates were not calculated. The dental diseases present were caries, ante-mortem tooth loss, enamel hypoplasia, calculus and periodontal disease, and extra-masticatory wear. All of the adults and the juvenile had deposits of supra-gingival calculus present. The deposits were generally slight but medium and heavy calculus were present on the teeth of individual 2105 and 2129. Two individuals had carious lesions present. Skeleton 800 and 2129 had one small lesion each and both were on the molars.

Two of the adults (skeletons 2105 and 2129) suffered from periodontal disease. This is commonly caused by the accumulation of calculus between the teeth and the soft tissue This causes inflammation of the soft tissue, ginigvitis, which may lead to inflammation of the bone. The inflammation of the bone causes horizontal bone loss and subsequent exposure of the roots of the teeth. The inevitable loss of the tooth would eventually follow (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 56). Periodontal disease is the most common dental disease in those aged over 30 years in modern populations (Hillson 1996, 263).

The aetiology of ante-mortem tooth loss is multi-factoral in origin. Trauma, caries, periodontal disease, and dental abscesses may cause the loss of a tooth ante-mortem. Only one individual had lost two teeth ante-mortem. Skeleton 2105 also had considerable periodontal disease which is the most likely cause of the tooth loss.

Two of the adult individuals (1971 and 2129) had hypoplastic lines present on the enamel surface on the mandibular dentition.

The occlusal surfaces of the maxillary incisors on skeleton 1971 and 2129 were also damaged. The slight chipping on the occlusal margins is likely to have resulted from the use of the teeth in craft activities rather than being related to diet.

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Skeletal pathology

All pathological lesions observed were present on the adults only. Though there are only four adults in this group, there is a marked difference in the amount of lesions present when compared to the late Roman assemblage. This is however not likely to be an indication of these people being in a generally poorer health but is likely to be an indication of the markedly better preservation and completeness amongst the middle-late Saxon skeletal remains.

Congenital disorder

Developmental abnormalities may occur during foetal development. These range from very minor to severe leading to the subsequent death of the individual. The minor defects may not have caused any problems to the individual during life.

Skeleton 2105 exhibited a partial sacralisation of the 5th lumbar vertebral segment. The right transverse process and the sacral ala were in articulation forming an additional sacral foramen. This defect is extremely minor and would not have caused any discomfort for the individual during life.

Metabolic disorder

Skeleton 2277, a young adult female, had pitting present on the orbital roofs. This type of lesion is known as cribra orbitalia and is caused by anaemia. The anaemia is likely to have occurred due to the bodies response to an infectious disease. By withholding iron from the pathogens, it would make it less able to reproduce (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 167). The lesions were still active at the time of death. In addition, fragments from the skull vault also shoved evidence of healed porotic hyperostosis. Skeleton 1971 also had slight porosity on the parietals. This lesion was also healed.

Trauma

An oblique fracture was present on the distal end of the left fibula of skeleton 1971. The fracture was longstanding and completely remodelled. The bone appeared to have been poorly aligned causing the bone to bow medially at the fracture site. The distal articular joint surface of the right tibia may also have been fractured. However, due to extensive post-mortem damage to the anterior half of the articular surface, it is not possible to be certain. The normal morphology of the joint surface was completely destroyed with extensive secondary degenerative changes. Moreover, an additional articular facet was present on the posterio-lateral aspect extending beyond the normal margin of the joint. The area is rough and flattened suggesting that it had been articulating with the talus. Unfortunately the bones of the foot are missing but the appearance of the distal end of the tibia suggests that there had been major trauma involving the foot and ankle.

Infectious disease

Both tibia of skeleton 1971 were thickened with mixed new woven bone and lamellar bone. The new bone formation was also present on the distal ends of the fibulae and lamellar bone was present on the left calcaneus. Moreover, the groove for the ligaments of peroneus brevis and peroneus longus was also abnormally deep. These muscles flex and evert the foot. The normal morphology of the 4th and 5th metatarsals were also obliterated and the bones were grossly thickened and covered in globulated new bone. The lesions were clearly chronic and active at the time of death.

Skeleton 2129 had small areas of healed lamellar bone adjacent to the linear aspera on both femora. The lesions were healed. A mixed woven and lamellar bone lesion was present on the distal end of the left fibula indicating that the periostitis was active.

Periostitis is an inflammation of the periosteum, a lining of the bones. The bone involvement can occur by the extension from a soft tissue infection, osteomyelitis or osteitis or it can be a generalised disease. Apart from being caused by infection, it may also be a consequence of trauma, haemorrhage or chronic skin ulcers (Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martín 1998, 179). The underlying aetiology of the infectious lesions present on the tibiae, fibulae and the bones present from the left foot of individual 1971 is likely to be traumatic in origin. Unfortunately, since all of the bones of the right foot and most of the bones from the left foot are missing, it is not possible to be certain. This is however the most likely explanation. The infectious lesions seen may have been caused by, for example, a crush injury to the feet and ankles. This injury may also have caused open wounds which would have enabled bacteria to enter causing an infection which turned chronic. This abnormal grooves from the muscle tendons on the calcaneus indicates that this individual was walking on the outside of the left foot only. The altered gait indicates that the infection caused him a great deal of pain.

The healed periostitis on the femora of skeleton 2129, is very minor and was likely to have been caused by minor muscle tears at the attachment sites. The active lesion on the fibula may be due to a skin ulcer causing a chronic inflammation (Ortner and Putschar 1981, 131). Alternatively, the infection could have spread from a foci elsewhere in the body via the blood stream (Manchester 1983, 37).

Joint disease

Ostoarthritic changes were present on the distal joint surface of the right tibia of skeleton 1971. The arthritis is secondary to the traumatic injury. The medial end of the left clavicle also had slight degenerative changes.

Skeleton 2105, aged over 50 years, had osteo-arthritis on both hip joints. Moderate to considerable degenerative changes were also present on both ends of the left clavicle and the glenoid fossa. Slight new bone formations was also present on the right patella.

Spinal joint disease

Mild degenerative changes were present throughout the spinal columns of skeleton 1971 and 2129. Skeleton 2105 had considerable degenerative changes in the thoracic region and osteo-arthritis in the cervical and lumbar vertebrae. The 2nd and 3rd lumbar vertebral bodies were also fused. All three individuals also had schmorl’s nodes present. These are caused by a vertebral disc hernia. This causes the disk to protrude through the vertebral surface causing a defect. These are common degenerative defects and are found in most people over 45 years of age (Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martín 1998, 97).

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Discussion

The Roman burials

Location of the burials in the landscape

Eight burials were located within or surrounding two small enclosures adjacent to the northern double boundary ditch of a large enclosure. The ditches also possibly formed a trackway between the field systems. The other two, skeleton 2744 and 2746, were situated about 30 m north-west of the main cemetery, on the other side of the double ditches. This pattern of discreet clusters of burials within enclosures and near boundary ditches is not unusual and is often associated with small rural settlements and villas (Esmonde Cleary 2000).

The burials are therefore situated within activity areas demarcated by the field boundaries. This suggests that the disposal of the dead was integrated with other land-uses and activities rather than set apart in a separate domain (Esmonde Cleary 2000, 132). The small enclosures indicate that for some of the burials, land was ritually set aside. Setting the dead aside through the use of physical boundaries may indeed be a way to control the powerful dead from inflicting harm onto the living.

Two trackways converged at the villa, from a northern and western approach respectively. The small cemetery is equidistantly situated about 65 meters away from the trackways and about 80 m west of the settlement. The chosen location for burial is a clear indication that the cemetery was intended to be seen from the villa as well as from both of the trackways leading to the villa. The location may have been chosen to ‘maintain them in the mental map of the inhabitants and passers-by’ (Esmonde Cleary 2000, 137).

Aspects of funerary ritual

There does not appear to be any coherent burial practice amongst the Roman inhumation burials at Claydon Pike. The distinctive features are summarised in Table 5. The orientation of the burials and the stratigraphical implication has been discussed elsewhere. This section will focus on the position of the body in the grave, the presence of a burial container and grave furnishing.

Geographical and chronological distribution of decapitation burials

The vast majority of decapitated Roman burials have been found south-east of the Severn wash line and are particularly concentrated in the Upper Thames Valley and Wessex. A few have been found in the East Midlands and West Yorkshire. Three examples are also known from Kent. It therefore appears that the rite is confined to the areas where inhumation was the predominant rite prior to the conquest (Philpott 1991, 78).

The vast majority of all decapitation burials have been found in small rural cemeteries associated with farms, villas and minor settlements. In Oxfordshire, cemeteries containing decapitated burials have been excavated in Abingdon, Alchester, Barrow Hills, Bloxham, Cassington, Crowmarsh, Curbridge, Stanton Harcourt, Wroxton St Mary, and Yarnton (Harman et al. 1981, Clarke 1996, Booth et al. 2001 Boyle and Chambers forthcoming, Boyle forthcoming ).Very few have been found in large well-organised urban cemeteries. It therefore appears that the ritual spread from rural to urban sites in the late 4th century, for example at Lankhills, Winchester (Clarke 1979, 374).

Decapitation burials date from the 1st to the late 4th century AD (Philpott 1991, 78). The rite becomes more common in the 3rd century AD and most examples dates to the 4th. Thus the examples from Claydon Pike conform to this pattern.

Age and sex distribution of decapitation burials

Philpott (1991, 79) identified a total of 87 decapitation burials and found a slight predominance of females over males (56:39). The age ranges present are diverse but individuals aged below 16 years are generally absent apart from three infant burials at Lankhills, of which one was richly furnished (Philpott 1991, 79; Boyle pers. com.). It was also clear that the age at death of the decapitated individuals broadly matched the life expectancy of the general population.

In Oxfordshire, there is a slightly higher incidence of males (24) compared to female (19) decapitation burials (Harman et al. 1981; Clarke 1996; Booth et al. 2001; Boyle and Chambers forthcoming; Boyle forthcoming). The age ranges are very similar to those above given for all of the country.

Decapitation ritual

Grave furniture is not commonly found in the graves of decapitated individuals. This may however reflect the general decline of grave goods in late 4th century. Local variations do however occur with the tradition persisting to the end of the 4th century. When artefacts are present, these have consisted of pottery and glass vessels, coins, equipment, personal ornaments and footwear.

Of 123 decapitation burials, 111 (90.24%) of the crania had been placed below the hips and 54 (43.9%) had been placed between the knees and legs or the feet (Philpott 1991, 78). In Oxfordshire, the same pattern is apparent (Harman et al. 1981; Clarke 1996; Booth et al. 2001; Boyle and Chambers forthcoming) but there are exceptions, for example, at Yarnton the head was not in the grave at all (Boyle forthcoming).

Four decapitation inhumations from Lankhills had cut marks present which indicated that the neck was severed between the 3rd and the 4th vertebrae (the middle of the neck) and that the act was performed from the front (Watt 1979, 342). The lack of bone damage indicates that the individual was dead prior to the severing of the head. The surgical accuracy would have been extremely difficult to achieve if the individual had been alive (Philpott 1991, 80).

Various theories as to the significance of this ritual has been put forward. These can be summarised as follows (Philpott 1991):

  • To prevent the dead from walking

  • As a punishment (would only be possible if the decapitation was carried out peri-mortem)

  • Human sacrifice of lower status beings (was illegal under Roman law)

  • Rite of passage. By breaking the link between this world and the next the deceased is able to pass over to the other world.

  • The head was believed to be the seat of the soul. By severing it, the victim would be deprived of his soul and therefore his future life.

  • Celts and Romans believed that the head was the seat of the life force and therefore a powerful totem. Through the ritual killing of a dead individual the supernatural life force was shifted to a beneficiary in this world. This may be curative since too little life force may have manifested itself as an illness.

Of the above theories, the last mentioned is the one, which may be deemed to be the most plausible. This is because it is based on our current knowledge of the Celtic and Romans belief systems rather than spurious parallels drawn from other religious belief systems from remote time periods. It would also offer an explanation for the care and attention taken when the head was removed.

The decapitation burials at Claydon Pike consisted of a male individual aged between 30 and 40 years (2776) and an unsexed individual aged between 18 and 24 years (2744). Both skeletons had their skulls placed by the feet and none of the individuals had been interred with any furnishings. It is clear that the funerary ritual of these individuals conforms with the national as well as the regional trend.

Grave goods

Only one individual was buried with footwear (skeleton 2777). The majority of burials with footwear are found in south central England and are almost exclusively associated with rural villas and other minor settlements though quite a few examples has been found at Lankhills (Philpott 1991, 167; Boyle pers. com). The burials with hobnails present become more common in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD but the vast majority of examples dates to the 4th century AD. This rite may have mirrored the current fashion in footwear but is more likely to be associated with a belief such as the person’s need for shoes in the afterlife.

Coffins Coffin nails were present in the graves of three skeletons (2767, 2770 and 2771). It was therefore clear that these individuals had been buried in wooden coffins. The evidence of wooden coffins being used in the late Roman period is widespread in Britain (Booth 2002, 25). From a total of 3459 burials, 54% had evidence for the presence of a wooden coffin (O’Brien 1999, 13).

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The middle-late Saxon burials

Burial location

The radiocarbon dates obtained from skeletons 1971, 2105 and 2121 indicated these individuals were interred between the end of the 7th century and the end of the 10th century. The villa was therefore ruinous when these interments took place. Some of the walls were completely robbed out. Where walls were still present, it is likely that some of the footings were still visible and these would have formed small areas of enclosed space. For example, skeleton number 2277 is enclosed by wall footings on all sides apart form the southern aspect. Just south of this burial, skeleton 2105 have been interred.

Funerary ritual

Unlike the Roman burials on at Claydon Pike, there appear to be a coherent burial practice amongst these inhumations (see Table 6). There is no correlation with orientation of the body in the grave and gender. The general direction of either east-west or west-east is applied to both sexes. Thought it is interesting to note that the immature individuals were buried in a crouched position, away from the group of adults. This therefore implies a coherent burial practice, in stark contrast to the earlier Roman burials.

The inhumations at Claydon Pike were not buried with any grave goods. The paucity of the grave-goods, the general east-west orientation of the adults strongly suggests this small family group were Christians.

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The disarticulated human remains

Disarticulated human remains came from all areas of the site. The bones date from the late Iron Age/early Roman to the late Roman period and are mainly from ditch fills (see Table 7). The information contained in this section is derived from the original text and analysis by Mary Harman but the dating sequence has been revised and additional data has been added.

Three of the fragments may date to the late Iron Age. Two (577 and 1575) were located within the area of the villa. One fragment, 1802, was found approximately 100 m south of the villa in the fill of a ditch. The bones recovered came from at least two individuals and these fragments may derive from earlier burials, which had been disturbed and redeposited within the ditch fill. However, isolated human bones as well as articulating parts of human bodies are often found within settlements during the Iron Age (Boyle 1999, 51). Evidence from central southern Britain indicates that exposure of the dead with secondary manipulation was practised during the Iron Age (Carr and Knüsel 1997). This would have involved excarnation through exposure away from the settlement, with the subsequent retrieval of selected bones (commonly long bones and crania), after an intermediate period of time when the body decayed. The bones would then have been incorporated into ritual deposits.

Most of the bone fragments from adult individuals are from the fill of ditches dating to the 4th century and the bone fragments represent three or four individuals. It is fairly unusual to find disarticulated fragments of adult burials within Roman contexts since adults normally received formal burials. Other sites where disarticulated human bone has been found includes Eton College at Dorney, South Buckinghamshire (Allen et al. 2000). The disarticulated bones may represent early burials which has been disturbed and scattered by later occupation on site or the fragments may be redeposited bones from the Iron Age phase.

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