Britannia 1

An account of the Icenian coinage includes much previously unpublished information. Though the Iceni figure largely in 1st century history, they left little material evidence apart from the coins which, however, provide an exceptionally complete record. Most of the coins known come from 12 recorded hoards (one of gold, the rest silver) which, with the isolated finds are concentrated in the Norwich and Breckland areas. The series began with gold staters of c 10 BC and continued with the staters of the Freckenham hoard. The supply of gold then evidently ran out, for whatever reason, well before the Conquest. Three silver types - Boar-Horse, Face-Horse and Pattern-Horse - presumably represent three Icenian sub-tribes or pagi, though with insufficient evidence to suggest territories. The fourth silver type is Romanised. Problems of dating are considered; it seems clear that the Iceni, as Roman allies, were allowed to continue minting after the Conquest, and that the hoards date to the Boudiccan revolt. The ultimate use of damaged dies testifies to Boudicca's urgent need of war supplies. Appendices provide further details.

There were Batavians serving in Britain from 43 onwards, and Civilis and his brother-in-law Briganticus may have seen action there Accounts of troops swimming rivers in the conquest period must refer to Batavians. The renown won by them in Britain referred to in Histories iv 12 must refer to the pre-Boudiccan period. Civilis's friendship with Vespasian may have been in Britain; the nomen Iulius may have been given to him by Gaius; the name of his brother-in-law may be derived from successful Plautian operations in the north. The four Batavian cohorts at Mons Graupius may have been re-formed from the disbanded eight cohorts of the 69 revolt. If they were milliary at Mons Graupius the question arises whether the eight were quingenary or milliary. BD

SP 038056. Rescue excavation in advance of school-building recovered fuller details of the villa first dug by Sir John Evans in the 1840s. It was found to comprise one timber and four masonry phases. The late 1st/early 2nd century building was of winged corridor type, built of wattle and daub on flint footings and timber sills; the central room of the main range had decorated plaster walls. After a fire and site-clearance a cob building was erected to a similar but larger plan. The Phase 3 rebuild countered dampness by having its cob walls set on mortared flint dwarf walls. The mosaics of this phase suggest a ?late 2nd century date. In Phase 4 (?3rd century) the villa was reduced in size, and in Phase 5 a hypocaust was installed and some internal modifications made. Occupation continued until mid-4th century at least, possibly much later. A lead seal allows tentative identification of the villa as part of an imperial estate run by a bailiff.

An interim review of the situation in the light of further evidence since the publication of the writer s 1960 paper. Large-scale excavations, as at Baginton, Metchley and Usk, are producing not only sequences of buildings but dating evidence which can be used elsewhere. The paper is divided into four sections: a) the campaigns of the conquest period, b) situations under Ostorius Scapula, c) Didius Gallus to Suetonius Paulinus, and d) from the Boudiccan rebellion to the governorship of Petillius Cerialis. So far as the military sites themselves are concerned, the moral drawn is that "the only possible way to excavate this kind of site is by large-scale stripping, and this can only be done with considerable resources of manpower and finance". EW

Much new evidence has come to light since publication of Curle's classic papers on the subject; except for coins, which are regularly treated elsewhere, the material is newly tabulated and discussed. It is grouped according to category of site, with unassociated/unrecorded material treated separately, and Traprain having a summary list to itself. Discussion continues on the problem of how so much rich and fine material came into native hands, but not all can be put down to looting and some of it must have been acquired by legitimate trade via the fort-annexes (at least one of which attained the status of a vicus). The coin distribution also suggests regular Roman-native interchange. The material is discussed and mapped for 1st, 2nd and 3rd-4th centuries respectively. There was a steady drift into native hands during the Antonine occupation of N Britain, and while the most valuable goods stayed in S Scotland, less valuable material penetrated at second or third hand as far as Orkney. Isolated treasures of ?Continental origin represent private enterprise, even plundering.

[TR 3260]. Cunliffe's dating of the stone fort to the reign of Carausius is rejected in favour of a date of AD 285. The evidence upon which the Carausian date rests the filling of the triple ditch around the central monument - is discussed, with the conclusion that "the positive evidence for dating the construction of the stone walls to the reign of Carausius rests on ... one coin, which ... must he of very doubtful value". The historical context for the building of the fort is briefly discussed, with the conclusion that the fort was of long term construction, ie it was not built as the result of an emergency. EW

An insight into the personal taste and ideals of members of the Roman army can be gained by studying seal-rings. Two types of intaglio, variants of the Polykleitan figures, deserve particular attention because there are six well-documented British examples and because they bear on the Roman military cursus. Type I shows a warrior identified as Theseus; Type II, Achilles. Both heroes are depicted just before they achieve greatness, and both bear weapons derived from their fathers. Military sites produce seals of other heroes too, and of a range of non-military subjects. Such gems provided their owners with more than a spur to action, since they reflect a whole host of Roman ideals such as service to the state, filial piety and reverence for past glories. The theme is carried on in wall-paintings, parade-gear and statuary from military sites.