• Introduction
• Overview
• Downloads
• Metadata
• Character Areas
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• Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund
• England's Historic Seascapes

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• ADS Collection: 744
• ALSF Project Number: 4731
• DOI:https://doi.org/10.5284/1000201
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Introduction | Seascapes Character Types

Palaeolandscapes

• Introduction: defining/distinguishing attributes and principal locations
• Historical processes; components, features and variability
• Values and perceptions
• Research, amenity and education
• Condition & forces for change
• Rarity and vulnerability
• Sources

Introduction: defining/distinguishing attributes and principal locations

The Type Palaeo-landscapes includes ancient landscapes and palaeo-environmental deposits now submerged beneath the sea or buried deep in the muds and silts of estuaries and rivers; it also includes submerged forests exposed in the study area's intertidal zone.

There is evidence for human activity across Britain and mainland Europe for the last 700,000 years. For all glacial periods there is potential for archaeological material deposited in sediments on the continental shelf, although no material much older that 100,000 years is likely to have survived the Wolstonian glaciation (c330,000BP to c135,000 BP) in the central and southern North Sea (Flemming 2002, 8). Most of the sands and gravels in the area are likely to be late Devensian in date (18000-10000BP) deposited after the melting of the ice sheets. At this time sea level was lower than at present and most of the North Sea was dry land. This submerged landscape is often known as 'Doggerland' (Figure 9.60, Coles 1998), referring to a time when Britain was still connected to the Continent (c9000-6400BC). Crudely, this palaeo-landscape might equate to the 120m bathymetric contour which marks the global lowstand during the last glacial maximum 18,000 year ago.

Across the central and southern North Sea there is submerged archaeological potential for Pleistocene flora and faunal remains. Early or Lower Palaeolithic potential is minimal but there is greater likelihood of Middle and Later or Upper Palaeolithic remains. Holocene deposits may hold Mesolithic archaeological potential, both in situ and in secondary contexts. The Dogger Bank was isolated and inundated by c5500BC and after that the archaeological potential is purely maritime.

A number of areas of the central and southern North Sea have particular archaeological potential. Generally banks that have pre-Holocene cores or are not modern marine sand bedforms could have once formed headlands, promontories, or islands. Closely spaced banks would have narrow channels between, places that would have provided both shelter and good fishing. Depending upon the precise gradients and topography, low ground adjacent to higher ground is likely to be archaeologically productive.

Areas of particular potential include those favourable for occurrence and preservation of submerged prehistoric sites. Principally these include:

• 'Fossil' estuaries and river valleys.
• The flanks of submerged banks and ridges proven to have peat layers, or which are likely to have peat layers.
• Valleys, depressions, or basins with wetland or marsh deposits.
• Wetlands, estuaries, nearshore creeks, intertidal mudflats and peat deposits.
• Low gradient beaches with constructive onshore wave action.
• 'Fossil' archipelago topographies where sites were sheltered by low-lying islands as the sea level rose.
• Deposits of sediments formed within, or washed into rocky gullies and depressions.
• Cliff coasts of unconsolidated glacial drift which may contain artefacts which are eroded onto the shore (the rocky Yorkshire coasts present such potential).
• Caves and rock shelters in re-entrant bays, fossil erosional shorelines, submerged rocky shores protected by other islands (Flemming 2004, 15).

The most recognisable named area is Dogger Bank, the large raised platform consisting of Devensian pro-glacial lake deposits and glacial moraine, mostly patches of gravel and formations of calcareous sands with peat infilling glacial depressions; all overlying Pleistocene sediments. BGS (1990) sediment maps describe Holocene sediments 5-20m thick on the south-east flank of Dogger Bank, while most of the surface of the Bank is covered by 1m thick Holocene deposits. A palaeo-environmental core recovered from the Bank records a diamicton surface overlain by a thin silt peat that grades into over 4m of sand silt. Saltmarsh foraminifera and pollen taxa have shown these sediments to have formed under predominantly inter-tidal conditions though with some freshwater influence. The top of the peat is dated to 8140�50BP at -31.06m OD (Shennan et al 2000, 303).

A great deal of Pleistocene faunal material (including mammoth and rhinoceros teeth) has been recovered and reported by fishermen from this area of the North Sea. Many of the bones are in a bad state of preservation, probably as a result of prolonged subaerial exposure prior to inundation. Many human artefacts, mammal remains and peat deposits have also been dredged and reported from locations reported as The Dogger Bank. However beyond the general location of these areas, little is known about their stratigraphic context or spatial patterning.

A more likely environment for the origin and preservation of archaeological materials would be the vast lagoon or sea basin which existed to the south of Dogger Bank from 8000-7000 years BP. In the Mesolithic period occupation was more likely in the lower valleys, settlements would have been in the lee or shelter of ridges and headlands, not on the tops, although hunting could have taken place on the higher ground. The lowland of marshes and coastal wetlands would have provided Mesolithic people with rich and varied resources (Flemming 2002, 18).

The shallow sea basin, about 90 nautical miles (167 km) in diameter was connected in the north-west to the open North Sea by a narrow channel, now the Outer Silver Pit. While artefacts and archaeological deposits left on the upper surface of Dogger Bank are likely to be exposed by present currents and wave action (very severe, breaking waves in 10m) it is probable that there are far more relicts originally abandoned on the shore of this shallow sea, in the area now at a depth of about 40m. The rising sea would have had very little destructive force until the water was tens of metres deep, and strong tidal currents were developing. Whitehead and Goodchild (1909) describe the recovery of peat deposits or 'moorlog' by fishermen, especially on the north side of the basin, on the flanks of Dogger Bank itself (Flemming 2002, 33).

The area close to the Yorkshire coast was subjected to ice erosion during the Devensian, and although there are few thick sediment layers which might contain archaeological materials, a submerged forest is known in the waters just south of Hartlepool. Early Mesolithic worked flints have been excavated from the peat beds associated with the forest. It is likely that there is further potential along this stretch of coast to and within the Tees Estuary itself and further south along to Redcar. In Danish waters submerged forests are recorded down to a depth of c30m. The oldest ones date to c9000BP. Even older ones may be found much deeper in the North Sea. Such remains have been identified by seismic surveying in a filled-in river valley at a depth of 45-50m in the eastern part of the Dogger Bank (Fischer 2004, 29).

A number of Mesolithic artefact scatters and Neolithic finds are recorded along the coastline between Hartlepool and Scarborough often eroding from cliffs, beaches, dunes and the foreshore but also turned-over on the farmland on the cliff-tops. Excavations at Howick, just north of this project area, have found remains of a Mesolithic hut site and an Early Bronze Age cist cemetery located on a modern cliff edge, and have forced a rethink of the scale and nature of Mesolithic settlement in north-east England, as well as the relationship between this and other regions around the North Sea Basin. Flint scatters have also been found at Hart Warren just north of Hartlepool. The submerged forest at Hartlepool-Seaton Carew also revealed later Neolithic remains including flint artefacts, human remains and a fish trap (Tees SMR). Similar finds have been found at Redcar Beach, and on the cliffs south to Easington. A tree trunk with an oval, charcoal lined cavity was recovered from lake deposits, probably dating to the Neolithic, in the Berwick Hills area of Middlesbrough (NMR: 27607) and a presumed Neolithic cranium was dredged from a bed of peat in the River Tees at Newport (NMR: 26871). Further south at Biller Howe, west of Robin Hood's Bay a multi-period (Mesolithic to Early Bronze Age) flint site is recorded and a Neolithic stone axe was found in the Scarborough Castle Dykes. A Palaeolithic settlement, flint scatter and hearth was discovered and excavated at Seamer Carr. This area also showed continued use or re-use during the Mesolithic with a settlement discovered at Kilerby Carr, both sites just south of Cayton. The famous Mesolithic site of Starr Carr lies only a short distance south and west in the Vale of Pickering.

There are also, however, distinct areas of the North Sea that may be considered of limited archaeological potential. The deepest ice-scour valleys and the deep valleys of the major rivers crossing the central floor of the southern North Sea are likely to have provided appealing habitation areas after the retreat of the ice, but these valleys are now usually filled with thick Holocene deposits and modern marine sands, such as the banks and sand waves of the area known as The Hills, south-west of Dogger Bank. Further archaeological and sedimentological research on this problem using sub-bottom profiling and seismic mapping might be worthwhile, but there is little chance of artefacts being exposed on or near the surface (Flemming 2002, 19).

Historical processes; components, features and variability

The Holocene period, after the last Ice Age, has seen the North Sea area transformed, but the north-east coast of England relatively little changed.

At the start of the Holocene the North Sea coastline ran from the area of the Norwegian Trough to a western embayment, inundated well before 10,000 years BP, extending south to the latitude of Flamborough Head. The coastline of north-east England was only a little further east of the present-day coast (Shennan et al 2000, 308). By 9000 years BP the western embayment had pushed south, to off Spurn Point, and then east to produce a shallow estuary to the south-west of Dogger Bank, the Strait of Dogger. The earliest sea-level index point from the river Tees shows the coastline of northern England very close to the present, with tidal waters extending into the estuary (Shennan et al 2000, 309).

The palaeo-geography of 8000 years BP indicates that the North Sea was then connected to the English Channel via a narrow strait east of Norfolk and west of Texel (now in the Netherlands). The Dogger Bank became cut off from the European mainland during high tides (Shennan et al 2000, 309). By 7500 BP the coast of northern Europe ran directly from eastern England to Denmark. It was deeply incised with estuaries that led into narrow-sided valleys that in turn wound their way between gently rolling hills. The channel separating north Norfolk from mainland Europe was only 5-10m deep at mid-tide and the channel between the Dogger Bank and mainland Europe was less than 5m below MSL in parts. (Shennan et al 2000, 309-10).

By 7000 years BP the Dogger Bank was only exposed at low tide and by 6000 BP it was submerged at all stages of the tide and the western margins of the North Sea were either close to or inland of the present coastline (Shennan et al 2000, 310-11). From 5000 years BP to the present relative sea-level increased gradually in the western North Sea south of the River Tyne, but rose above present levels to the north (Shennan et al, 2000; 311). Even during the periods of most rapid relative sea-level rise, especially during the early Holocene in the southern North Sea, coastal and saltmarsh vegetation communities formed temporarily during coastline retreat (Shennan et al 2000, 317).

The Doggerland landscape represented a living space rather than merely a 'landbridge' connecting Britain to mainland Europe (Coles 1998; 1999). In many ways the topography of the Danish archipelago is analogous with the low relief of the central North Sea. It is possible to envisage the rising sea penetrating river valleys, inlets and creeks into marshes, and separating low islands only 30m high in places (Flemming 2004, 18). The variation in rate of sea-level rise, standstill and fall combined with local topography, meant that land loss probably occurred in fits and starts. Deeply incised Pleistocene river valleys would have gradually infilled with no perceptible change for decades or even centuries during the early Holocene. However these periods of minimal change may have occasionally been followed by periods of continual change, or dramatic change.

Archaeological evidence from Denmark indicates that settlements are the most numerous type of submerged site likely to be found and this may also be true for the British areas of the central and southern North Sea floor. The majority of Mesolithic sites on the South Scandinavian sea floor were originally located close to water - rivers, lakes, and especially the sea - often sited along the seashore itself right next to places where people could exploit the resources immediately available. Hunting kill sites, flint quarries, flint-knapping sites, settlements, camps, shell middens, charcoal from fires, and shelters, tend to cluster round shorelines, estuaries, lagoons, headlands and promontories (Flemming 2002, 8). Most submerged settlements along internal Danish shorelines had one or more fish weirs, structures that would have had to be repaired and replaced frequently. Fishing using wood-built weirs has been practised in the Danish archipelago until the beginning of the 20th century and almost identical constructions are known from the Mesolithic, the largest one recorded is located perpendicular to the former shore at the small island of Neksel�, extending over a distance of 250m. It consists of vertical poles up to 150mm wide to which up to 4m high wickerwork panels were tied. The panels were made of straight sticks of coppiced hazel (Fischer 2004, 27).

Once sea levels rose beyond the confines of river valleys large areas of the landscape would have 'suddenly' flooded over distances of hundreds of metres or kilometres. Catastrophic events like this would have had a dramatic impact on individual perceptions and communal memory of the landscape during the Mesolithic (Chapman and Lillie 2004, 67). One such catastrophic episode, the Storegga slide, occurred about 6000BC when a massive sub-marine landslide in the Artic Ocean midway between the coasts of Norway and Iceland caused a series of immense tidal waves, tsunamis that must have devastated the low-lying coasts of Doggerland.

Mesolithic people may have heard the distant rumblings... water from the northern North Sea would have rushed into the space vacated by the landslide. People on land would have noticed that the sea receded, probably as far as the eye could see, in a matter of tens of minutes. They may have thought that the newly revealed shellfish and stranded fish represented an amazing bonanza! The seawater, piled up in the depression, then began to flow out again as a series of massive waves travelling at 20-30m per second on shallow coasts. Four or five waves would have hit the coast over two or three hours, each separated by a strong backlash as water flowed back to sea. Any coastal settlements would have been flooded without warning; indeed the water depth would have been many metres, and people and animals would have been drowned. Coastal and estuarine areas, resources and people would have been devastated (Edwards, 2005).

Many of the settlement sites also include organic-rich midden deposits including fragments of wickerwork, log boats, discarded tools and food remains; habitation areas with hearth remains, flint knapping workshops and graves. Votive sites from the Neolithic are also common phenomena in the Danish archipelago, usually found close to the present shore, typically in protected areas such as fjords or narrow straits. The types of finds most frequently seen are late Neolithic flint daggers, flint axes, shaft-hole axes and pottery (Fischer 2004, 27-28).

Dogger Bank was the location of a major First World War naval battle that took place on 24 January 1915, between squadrons of the British Grand Fleet and the German High Seas Fleet.

Values and Perceptions

Today the submerged landscapes of the North Sea offer tantalising glimpses of a drowned culture, lost and somewhat mysterious yet full of potential for further understanding, a link to a period before Britain became an island, but one not widely known to public perception.

In recent times this area of the central North Sea will be recognised as being covered by BBC Radio 4's Shipping Forecast, for the sea areas 'Tyne' and 'Dogger' and the Inshore Waters forecasts for 'Berwick on Tweed to Whitby' and 'Whitby to The Wash'. The Shipping Forecast is provided by the UK Meteorological Office on behalf of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency. It is broadcast four times a day and consists of reports and forecasts of weather for the seas around Britain. Its unique, distinctive name means it has a wide iconic appeal even to those not solely interested in nautical weather.

Some will always associate Dogger Bank with the First World War naval battle. Similarly Dogger Bank may be remembered as the site of the UK's strongest earthquake measuring 6.1 on the Richter scale. Taking place on 7th June 1931 its epicentre was on the Bank, about 60 miles (96.6km) from the coast of England and its effects were reported throughout Britain and even in Belgium and France.

Research, amenity and education

The palaeo-landscapes and submerged prehistoric settlements of the central North Sea are important for at least four reasons.

• The potentially rich preservation of organic materials. Peat deposits on the Dogger Bank are important as they provide both an archaeological resource of palaeo-environmental evidence and also clear evidence that marine transgression has not totally removed all traces of the former land surface(s) (Wessex Archaeology, 2002).
• They inform important parts of the settlement patterns of coastal regions and understanding their nature and extent might allow estimations of late Pleistocene and early Holocene human population size and distribution
• They may represent a more varied array of subsistence, manufacturing, and ceremonial activities than the adjacent inland sites from the same regions. Submerged sites on the Danish sea floor are numerous, well-preserved, technically within easy reach and easily predicted topographically. In many cases they represent fundamental aspects of culture, the traces of which cannot be found above present sea level (Fischer 2004, 31).
• They inform our understanding of the timing, manner and direction of early post-glacial Mesolithic settlement of the present British Isles.

The location of Mesolithic settlement sites means there is a premium on accurately identifying the shorelines and rivers at each date, and especially those shorelines where sea-level was locally constant for hundreds or thousands of years, relative to local land (Flemming 2002, 8). The low gradients of the North Sea floor were associated with a complex indented coastline of low-lying islands and marshes during the last marine transgression. This terrain produced similar topographies to the Danish archipelago, which is proven to be the location of over 2000 submerged Mesolithic sites (Flemming 2005, 18).

Prospective sites, to be considered for high resolution geophysical survey and mapping include:

• Depressions, large lagoons, channels (eg the extensive shallow depression south of Dogger Bank, and through the Outer Silver Pit; the area SW of Dogger Bank known as The Hills)
• Palaeo-coastlines, headlands, bays, coastal lagoons (eg. Dogger Bank)
• Modern coastlines including caves and cliffs (eg. The Yorkshire cliffs, and other cliff coasts of Northumberland and East Anglia are important erosional features with artefacts occasionally being revealed. Recent research has also mapped the presence of surviving palaeo-cliff-falls (see David Pybus pers comm, pg 135 of this report).
• Present inter-tidal mudflats and wetlands (eg Tees Estuary)
• Lee of islands and archipelagos (eg Tees Bay and Estuary)
• Estuaries, wetlands, marshes, peat (eg Tees Estuary) (Flemming 2002, 19)

Sites that are buried to a sufficient depth of sediment have a far greater chance of surviving in situ. Conversely however, this reduces the possibility of their discovery compared to exposed material. Recently exposed material may also have the advantage that the spatial relationships between artefacts are not too disturbed (Westley and Dix 2006, 209.)

If the archaeological deposit is buried under 5 to 10m of mud or sand, it will not be discovered, except in very unusual circumstances. Thus the final requirements for survival and discovery are.

• Low net modern sediment accumulation rate so that the artefacts are not buried too deeply.
• No fields of sand waves or megaripples over the site.
• Ideally, a slight change in oceanographic conditions so that the site is being gently eroded to expose deposits when visited by archaeologists (Flemming 2002, 12-13).

Geophysical and geotechnical survey methods can be used in combination to address prehistoric deposits. Bathymetric survey, using single beam or multibeam systems, can be used to establish the basic framework for gauging the presence of prehistoric material. The height of the seabed, in conjunction with secondary sources relating to sea-level rise, sets the broad parameters for when an area of seabed might have been exposed, and therefore inhabitable (Wessex Archaeology, 2007).

Current research, such as the 'North Sea Palaeo-landscapes' project, undertaken by the University of Birmingham, has employed high resolution marine seismic data to analyse the seabed stratigraphy of an area the size of Wales in the central North Sea. Geophysical survey may have considerable potential for reconstructing palaeogeography below the low water mark and thereby identify the locations most likely to have been occupied during prehistory. The advantage of seismic data is that it can penetrate through recent sediments to the underlying bedrock geology identifying series of superimposed original land surfaces and features such as river channels, lakes, basins and marine estuaries. The detailed results from studies like this will allow better models of archaeological potential and their attendant threats to be assessed.

British Geological Survey maps, and their associated cores, are also be an essential tool for assessing the archaeological potential and sensitivity of areas of the sea floor. They provide classification of surface sediments by grain size, thickness of active marine sediments, as well as the thickness of Holocene deposits and other information on tidal currents and marine bedforms.

Condition & forces for change

The survival or destruction of an archaeological deposit, whether originally inland or on the coast depends on the local topography within a few hundred metres or a few kilometres of the site. Although other factors apply, for example normal subaerial erosion processes, the critical period for survival of palaeo-landscapes is the time when the surf type starts to impact, and the ensuing few hundred years as the sea level rises and shallow coastal waters break over the site. Factors favourable for survival include the following.

• Very low beach gradient and offshore gradient so that wave action is attenuated and is constructional.
• Minimum fetch so that wave amplitude is minimum, wavelength is short, and wave action on the seabed is minimum.
• Original deposit is embedded in peat or packed deposits to give resistance and cohesion during marine transgression. Modern marine sands, sand waves, and sand sheets, cloak many of the archaeological strata, but movement of these deposits, or periodic erosion can expose sites.
• Where deposits are in cave or rock shelters; roof falls, accumulated debris, concretions and conglomerations all help to secure the archaeological strata.
• Local topography comprising localised shelter from dominant currents, wind fetch and surf type at the time of transgression (Flemming 2002, 12).

Archaeological material deposits are likely to have undergone considerable taphonomic changes following initial deposition. 'They may be covered by metres of marine sediments which protect them indefinitely, or they may been eroded by ice, worn by rivers, battered and scattered by surf action, eroded by bottom action of storm waves, eroded by tidal currents, be chemically altered, or disturbed by trawling, dredging, entrenching or drilling' (Flemming 2002, 12).

Along the foreshores of the study area Holocene deposits are likely to be irregularly preserved and it may be difficult to achieve a clear picture of past environmental processes and human activity. Furthermore erosion will have certainly reduced the spatial extent of the sediments available for analysis and truncated many profiles so that many records of past events will have been destroyed (Waughman 2005, 127). Developmental pressures along the coastline, such as sea defences, port and harbour constructions or offshore industry related structures such as pipelines, cables or hydrocarbon drillings may all impact on the survival of such remains.

Archaeological material exposed in the inter-tidal zone (of the coastlines of the past) is likely to have been moved about by wave action and therefore is unlikely to survive in primary contexts. Secondary and tertiary assemblages are likely to be far more common occurring as patches of material sorted by size and type (Westley and Dix 2006, 209). Conversely, however, modern eroding foreshores are also the sites most likely to reveal palaeo-landscapes (eg Hartlepool submerged forest).

In many areas of coastal waters, worked flints, artefacts and other material are often directly visible on the seabed as a result of erosion. Breaking waves during the transgression of the sites in prehistoric times probably caused part of this erosion but modern erosion will have contributed too. Down to at least a depth of 10m many sites are presently being worn away by waves and currents. This erosion is probably exacerbated by pollution, which kills underwater vegetation thus further exposing the sea floor (Fischer 2004, 25).

There is potential for aggregate dredging activity to significantly impact any in situ assemblages of Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic date within the Dogger Bank palaeo-valleys and associated slopes but, due to subsequent erosion, less potential on adjacent higher ground.

Trawling and beam trawling in particular may also have detrimental impacts on buried palaeo-landscapes or artefacts revealed on the sea-bed. However a balance needs to be struck between the advantage of discovering archaeological evidence and the disadvantage of its possible destruction.

Rarity and vulnerability

No known statutory protection is currently afforded to the palaeo-landscapes of the North Sea. Submerged Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites are relatively rare in Britain and as such they should be regarded as of national, even international importance and wherever possible left undisturbed.

Prehistoric landscapes and artefacts, however, discovered represent a nationally and internationally important archaeological resource. Finds are relatively rare and often imprecisely located.

Natural erosion seems to be the biggest threat, but with increased likelihood of off-shore aggregate extraction, oil and gas drilling and the construction of offshore windfarms, there is a growing need for further research into palaeo-landscapes (Petts and Gerard 2006, 203).

Recommendations

Understanding the prehistoric archaeology of the north-west European Continental Shelf is an essential part of understanding the prehistory of Europe.

Submarine prehistoric sites can survive with sufficient integrity to provide evidence for settlement patterns, working sites, fish weirs, hearths, food remains, craft and burials. Those within 5-15m depth can be studied and excavated using scuba-diving techniques or surface supplied air diving.

Where off-shore peat deposits do exist, their potential for environmental data should be explored. The British Geological Survey and commercial cores, which have been archived, are an important though untapped resource (Petts and Gerrard 2006, 203).

Consideration should be given to the potential impacts of the hydrocarbon industry, aggregate dredging and pipeline-laying operations on submarine prehistoric archaeological remains. The role of offshore industry is also potentially beneficial, since industrial work can reveal the presence of submarine prehistoric sites. The risk of damage to the sites has to be balanced against the advantage of discovering sites. Projects and initiatives supporting the recording, voluntary or otherwise, of recovered archaeological material are imperative.

Commercial activity off-shore is likely to be the main source of information about off-shore prehistoric remains. Dialogue could profitably be initiated with the region's fishermen in order to record any archaeological material they may have recovered in order to protect the marine historic environment and increase the fishing industry's awareness of it. A protocol for reporting finds of archaeological interest already exists within the marine aggregates industry (BMAPA/English Heritage) and could be followed as an example, as indeed already exists in the Netherlands.

Cooperation with offshore industries might also lead to the sharing with archaeologists of survey results, including data from swathe bathymetry, slide-scan sonar and conventional shallow sub-bottom profiling, and coring and sampling of sub-sea sediments (Petts and Gerrard 2006, 203).

The North Sea is an area that historically has brought people together, the focus of interactions between many of the countries bordering it. As such it is important that research, management and outreach be coordinated internationally. By extension the adoption of legislation, regulation and standards that can improve joint working is desirable.

Sources

Publications:

Chapman, HP and Lillie, M C, 2004. Investigating 'Doggerland' through analogy: the example of Holderness, Easy Yorkshire (UK), in NC Flemming (ed), 2004 Submarine prehistoric archaeology of the North Sea: Research priorities and collaboration with industry. CBA Research Report 141. English Heritage/Council for British Archaeology. 2004.

Coles, BJ, 1998. Doggerland: a Speculative Survey, Proc Prehist Soc 64, 45-81.

Edwards, K. 2005. Palaeoenvironments, in V Gaffney, 2005, Doggerland: lost world of the Stone Age hunters, Current Archaeology 207

Flemming, NC, 2002. Dept. Trade and Industry. The scope of Strategic Environmental Assessment of North Sea areas SEA3 and SEA2 in regard to prehistoric archaeological remains.

Flemming, N C (ed), 2004 Submarine prehistoric archaeology of the North Sea: Research priorities and collaboration with industry, CBA Research Report 141, English Heritage/Council for British Archaeology

Flemming, NC, 2004. The prehistory of the North Sea floor in the context of Continental Shelf archaeology from the Mediterranean to Nova Zemlya in NC Flemming (ed), 2004

Fischer, A, 2004. Submerged Stone Age - Danish examples and North Sea potential. in NC Flemming (ed), 2004

Mithen, S, 2003. After the Ice: A Global Human History 20,000-5000BC

Petts, D and Gerrard, C, 2006. Shared Visions: The North East Regional Research Framework for the Historic Environment. Durham County Council

Shennan, I and Andrews, J (eds), 2000. Holocene Land-Ocean Interaction and Environmental Change around the North Sea. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 166, 299-319. 1-86239-054-1/00.

Shennan, I et al, 2000. Modelling western North Sea palaeogeographies and tidal changes in I Shennan and J Andrews (eds), 2000

Shennan, I et al, 2000. Holocene isostasy and relative sea-level changes on the east coast of England in I Shennan and J Andrews (eds) 2000

Waughman, M. 2005. Archaeology and Environment of Submerged Landscapes in Hartlepool Bay, England. Tees Archaeology Monograph Series, Volume 2.

Wessex Archaeology. 2002:i-ii. Area 466 North West Rough Archaeological Assessment.Technical Report. Wessex Archaeology. January 2002.

Wessex Archaeology, 2007. Historic Environment Guidance for the Offshore Renewable Energy Sector. Prepared for COWRIE.

Westley, K and Dix, J, 2003. A re-assessment of the archaeological potential of continental shelves. Dept. of Archaeology, University of Southampton and English Heritage. (see http://www.arch.soton.ac.uk/Research/Aggregates//shelve-intro.htm).

Websites:

http://www.iaa.bham.ac.uk/research/fieldwork_research_themes/projects/North_Sea_Palaeolandscapes/

http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/coast/shipping/index.shtml

http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/projects/marine/bmapa/arch-interest.html

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